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Image: AP
Sudan is in news. The world’s attention turning towards a country in Africa isn’t a common phenomenon. However, this isn’t the first time Sudan is being talked about around the world. The nation was in news for the first time during the late 19th century. Khartoum was grappling with a serious conflict at that time as well. A young man named Winston Spencer Churchill (who would go on to become the prime minister of Britain) was in Bangalore city of India at that time. He would read about the conflict every day in the newspapers and dream about going to Khartoum.
He would write letters to his mother, urging her to use her influence to ensure he is transferred to 21st Lancers. 21st Lancers, a cavalry regiment of the British Army, was a unit that was involved in the said conflict. Churchill would even talk to Lord Salisbury, the then PM of Britain, and urge him to use his influence to persuade the Army. Churchill intended to visit a conflict zone and Sudan guaranteed him conflict. Fortunately for him and unfortunately for Sudan, the nation has been cursed with conflict. Why and how? Let’s take a look at Sudan’s political history, to get a better insight into this.
(Image Credit: Associated Press)
Sudan is located in northeastern Africa. One of the earliest political entities in Sudan was the Kingdom of Kush, which emerged around 2000 BCE and lasted until the 4th century CE. The Kushites, known for their advanced civilisation and trade relations with Egypt and other African regions, played a significant role in the region’s politics and culture.
In the 7th century CE, Islam spread to Sudan, and Arab traders and missionaries began to exert influence over the region. Over time, Islam became deeply rooted in Sudanese society, and the Arab-Islamic culture and language dominated the northern regions, while the south remained largely African and animist.
In the 19th century, Sudan came under the rule of Egypt, which was then a part of the Ottoman Empire. Egypt’s influence over Sudan increased with the construction of the Suez Canal, which boosted trade and strategic interests in the region. However, Egypt’s rule was met with resistance from the Sudanese population, leading to a series of revolts and uprisings against Egyptian rule.
In the late 19th century, Sudan witnessed a significant event that shaped its modern history – the rise of the Mahdist movement. Led by Muhammad Ahmad, a religious leader who claimed to be the Mahdi or “guided one,” the movement sought to establish an Islamic state in Sudan and challenge foreign dominance. In 1885, the Mahdists successfully captured Khartoum, the Sudanese capital, and killed the British governor-general, General Gordon. This led to a period of Mahdist rule in Sudan, which lasted until 1898 when British forces defeated the Mahdists and reasserted control over Sudan. It was this war that Churchill intended to witness.
Under British rule, Sudan was governed as a condominium between Britain and Egypt, with the British maintaining a dominant role. The British introduced modern infrastructure, such as railways and telegraph lines, and implemented policies that favored economic development and increased agricultural production. However, Sudanese aspirations for self-governance and independence grew, and nationalist movements emerged, calling for an end to foreign domination.
In 1956, Sudan gained independence from Britain and Egypt, becoming a sovereign nation. However, the newly independent Sudan faced numerous challenges, including ethnic tensions, regional disparities, and political instability. The country struggled with issues such as resource allocation, power sharing, and representation, which exacerbated existing ethnic and religious divisions.
Throughout its post-independence history, Sudan experienced periods of military rule, political coups, and civil wars. The country’s political landscape was marked by shifting alliances, factionalism, and conflict over resources, particularly oil. The civil war between the northern government, which was predominantly Arab and Islamic, and the southern rebels, who sought greater autonomy and representation, lasted for decades and resulted in widespread violence, displacement, and humanitarian crises.
(Image Credit: Associated Press)
In 2005, a Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) was signed between the Sudanese government and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A), which ended the civil war and granted autonomy to the southern region of Sudan. In 2011, South Sudan, the world’s newest nation, seceded from Sudan and became an independent country. However, the secession did not bring lasting peace to Sudan, as the country continued to grapple with political instability, economic challenges, and conflicts in other regions, such as Darfur (a region of western Sudan) and the Nuba Mountains (which lies in the southern part of Sudan). The conflict in Darfur is important because the two key players in the current crisis played an important role during the Darfur conflict.
In 2019, widespread protests erupted across Sudan, calling for political reforms, democratic governance, and an end to corruption and human rights abuses. These protests, known as the Sudanese Revolution, led to the ouster of long-time President Omar al-Bashir, who had been in power for three decades. Subsequently, a transitional government was formed, consisting of civilian and military representatives, with the aim of leading Sudan toward a democratic and inclusive system.
In December, leaders from both sides of the current conflict signed a provisional accord that promised a civilian government and elections within two years, which could potentially revive Sudan’s struggling economy through foreign aid and debt relief. However, the final agreement, due to be signed in April, has been marred by disagreements over the integration of the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) into the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and civilian oversight of the military.
(Image Credit: Associated Press)
The power struggle between General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, the head of the junta, and Lieutenant General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, commonly known as “Hemedti,” the leader of the RSF, has reached a breaking point as the two men stand to lose power and influence in the event of the agreement’s implementation. Hemedti, who is reluctant to hand over command of his powerful paramilitary force, has demanded a decade for the integration of the RSF into the SAF, while General Burhan reportedly sought a shorter timeline of two years to ensure the dominance of the SAF. Moreover, both leaders and their allies are wary of any deal that would significantly curtail their lucrative business interests.
(Image Credit: Associated Press)
The recent clashes that erupted in Khartoum and other strategic locations appear to be a manifestation of this power struggle. Analysts speculate that Islamist elements within the army may have launched a swift strike to “reassert Islamist control over the transition and the country,” according to Jonas Horner, who spoke with the Economist. In the months leading up to the fighting, both sides had reportedly been building up their forces and fortifying their positions. Tanks were spotted near the Nile in Khartoum. General Burhan and Hemedti were apparently no longer on speaking terms in the days before the clashes broke out, signaling the deepening divisions within Sudan’s transitional government.
The situation has been further complicated by the involvement of the Islamist old guard, remnants of former President Omar al-Bashir’s now-outlawed party. The Islamist group was apparently actively trying to prevent the pending deal, adding another layer of complexity to an already precarious situation.
Who is Abdel Fattah al-Burhan?
Abdel Fattah al-Burhan is a Sudanese military general and the leader of the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF). He rose to prominence as a career soldier in Sudan’s post-independence history, serving in various military roles, including commanding the Sudanese army in Darfur during the civil war in Sudan’s western region that began in 2003. Al-Burhan played a key role in the government’s counter-insurgency efforts against the Darfuri rebels, using regular troops and air power, albeit with little regard for civilian casualties.
In April 2019, Al-Burhan joined forces with Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, the head of the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF), to overthrow Sudan’s then-military ruler, Omar al-Bashir, amid widespread protests. Following the coup, an agreement was signed with the protesters to form a civilian-led government overseen by the Sovereign Council, a joint civilian-military body, with Al-Burhan as its head and Hemedti as his deputy. However, their alliance lasted only two years until October 2021 when the military struck again and took power for themselves.
Al-Burhan has faced calls from civilian leaders and victims of the conflict in Darfur and elsewhere to face trial for alleged abuses. He has also been accused of attempting to restore the old Islamist regime of Omar al-Bashir to power, which has led to tensions with Hemedti and their current conflict for control of the Sudanese state.
(Image Credit: Associated Press)
Who is Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo?
Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, popularly known as Hemedti, is also a Sudanese military general and the head of the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF). He first gained prominence as the commander of one of the Arab militias, collectively known as the Janjaweed, which the Sudanese government employed to brutally suppress the Darfuri rebel groups during the civil war in Sudan’s western region. Hemedti eventually became the commander of an offshoot of the Janjaweed, the RSF.
Hemedti’s power and influence grew significantly when he began supplying troops to fight for the Saudi-led coalition in Yemen. Sudan’s then-military ruler, Omar al-Bashir, hoped to use Hemedti and the RSF as a counterweight to the regular armed forces. His plan was to divide and rule. Much to Bashir’s chagrin, in April 2019, Hemedti joined forces with Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, the leader of the SAF, to overthrow al-Bashir amid widespread protests.
After the coup, Hemedti became the deputy of the civilian-led government’s Sovereign Council, with aspirations of positioning himself as a national figure. Hemedti has also tried to position himself as a representative of marginalised peripheries, seeking alliances with rebel groups in Darfur and South Kordofan, which he had previously been tasked with suppressing. Hemedti has also been accused of building a vast business empire, including interests in gold mines and other sectors, similar to the SAF leader Al-Burhan whom he is now fighting.
Tensions between the RSF and the SAF grew as the deadline for forming a civilian government approached, and as a result, the time for the re-integration of the RSF into the regular armed forces also approached closer. This, as mentioned above, eventually led to the current conflict between Hemedti and Al-Burhan for control of the Sudanese state.
(Image Credit: Associated Press)
As the clashes continue and tensions mount, there are growing concerns about the future of Sudan’s transition toward civilian rule. The fragile agreement that was supposed to pave the way for a fully civilian government and elections now appears to be a distant dream, threatening Sudan’s already fragile state. It appears that for Sudan, not a lot has changed since Churchill’s youth. It still is a nation caught in conflicts.